President Buhari failed to fix Nigeria’s economy, but still has the edge this election

Muhammadu Buhari’s election four years ago as Nigerian president was greeted with great enthusiasm, and expectation. US President Barack Obama invited him to the White House less than two months after his inauguration, an honor rarely accorded to newly elected African leaders. Many Nigerians saw Buhari as a messiah rescuing them from years of economic disempowerment, institutionalized corruption and insecurity.

These high hopes were unsurprising. The Nigerian economy, though growing at a robust rate, wasn’t benefiting most Nigerians. Unemployment, especially among young people, was widespread and growing. The World Bank estimated Nigeria’s poverty rate to be as high as 70%, an embarrassing number given that the country is ranked as the eighth largest oil exporter in the wof the things Nigerians complained about in 2015 are still unresolved. In particular, unemployment, poverty and economic disempowerment remain firmly in place. Since Buhari came to power, Nigeria’s unemployment rate has more than doubled from 10.4% in January 2016 to 23.1% in July 2018. In June last year CNN reported that Nigeria had overtaken India as the country with the largest number of people living in extreme poverty. About 87 million Nigerians, or half the population, live on less than $1.90 per day

Economic performance

When he came to power in 2015, Buhari promised to tackle three interrelated problems: corruption, insecurity and the economy. Of the three, Nigerians regarded economic problems as paramount. But the administration appears to have focused on corruption and security issues and paid less attention to the economy.

For example, Buhari failed to prevent an impending recession that followed the collapse of oil prices in 2015. This was because he didn’t prioritize the economy and took too long to articulate an economic transformation strategy.

Another example of lack of focus on the economy was his meeting with US President Donald Trump in April 2018. 

Critics also point to the fact that Buhari ceded the management of the economy to his vice president Yemi Osinbajo. Though a brilliant lawyer, Osinbajo had no background or experience in economics. To make matters worse, Osinbajo surrounded himself with incompetent and inexperienced advisers. Buhari claimed he was unable to jump-start the economy because of falling oil prices and dwindling government revenue. Before he came to power the oil price was as hias $108 per barrel. It plummeted precipitously to $63 the month he was sworn in as president. The oil price continued to slide during the early stages of his administration, reaching an all-time low of $35 per barrel in February 2016.

The collapse affected Buhari’s ability to put together a coherent budget. For instance, his 2016 budget had a deficit of over 2.2 trillion Naira. His attempt to borrow $30 billion to finance the deficit was vehemently opposed by the country’s lawmakers. Nor was public opinion favourable about an external loan. This forced the administration to pare down the number of projects it intended to undertake.

Anti-corruption scorecard

Buhari’s scorecard in fighting corruption has been mixed. On the one hand, he has prosecuted high-profile politicians, civil servants and retired military officers for corruption and secured convictions in a handful of cases. His administration has also recovered billions of Naira in stolen assets from corrupt Nigerians.

Scores of corrupt politicians and government officials, including the Chief Justice of the country’s Supreme Court, are currently undergoing trials for various forms of financial crimes.

But Buhari’s antption efforts have been marred by the perception that they have been selective and targeted mostly at members of the main opposition party, the People’s Democratic party. And his failure to prosecute a prominent state governor who is one of his close political allies, after the governor was shown on video collecting several thousand dollars in bribes, has accentuated the perception that he is only interested in prosecuting his political enemies. Another political ally, a former Secretary to the Government of the Federation, also got a pass from Buhari after being credibly accused of corrupt practices.

Buhari is likely to win not because he has fulfilled the expectations of Nigerians, but because his main opponent, former Vice President Atiku Abubakar, is a weak candidate who carries a lot of baggage.

Abubakar is a very prominent and wealthy businessman. But his business credentials and the source of his wealth are controversial. Many believe he made his money through cronyism and questionable activities rather than through genuine entrepreneurship.

Nigerians will be faced with a Hobbesian choice between two problematic candidates. In that choice, Buhari seems to have an edge over Abubakar.

Construction Economics And Finance Construction Essay

The economic downturn while unfortunate is real life problem that needs to be managed and controlled by construction companies. Construction is experiencing particular suffering as it relies on large capital expenditure to finance projects and the unavailability of a steady cash flow has resulted in many companies being forced into bankruptcy despite making a profit. Cash flow management has been described as the most important of all a company’s resources as its inadequate management can lead to liquidity problems whereby day to day activities cannot be supported (Navon, 1996; Singh and Lakanathan, 1992). As contractors have to wait a number of months before being payed for completed work, this places increased pressure on credit facilities that they have agreed with banks, sub-contractors, suppliers, etc. This is why there is such agreement within the industry towards the importance of cash flow forecasting and control (Navon, 1990; Carr, 1993; Cook, 1991).

The UK Government’s policy has been to provide a fiscal stimulus by increasing spending on large public projects so as to inject money into the economy which will filter down through all sectors (McFall, 2008). Green (2009) forecasted that the recession will match up to the recession of the late 80’s and early 90’s but that it will recover quicker. Once again public spending is the underlining reason for the upturn but it is questioned whether the continuous spending can be sustained.

The logical relation between high inflation which causes a rise in borrowing costs and a reduction in construction investment and thus a fall in the construction cycle is shown below in Figure 2.2 (Ren & Lin 1996). These ups and downs in the economy in general used to be called “business cycles” but “cycles” implies predetermined or automatic recurrence and according to Myers (2008) we are not experiencing automatic recurrent cycles and we should refer to these activities as business fluctuations instead. Construction companies need to analyze these cyclical indicators so that they can plan activity and investment depending on the fluctuations.

Whitten (2009) writing for Construction News explained how The Civil Engineering Contractors Association has warned of an emerging trend of firms pricing below cost. Both Whitten (2009) and Scully (2009) argue the point that below cost tendering is unsustainable and will increase the risk of contractors facing insolvency. Reductions in material and plant costs have been exceeded by the drop in tender prices. Insolvencies are predicted to occur firstly among contractors who tender correctly but fail to win the contract and then among those who win the contract with unsustainably low bids (Whitten, 2009).

Cash flow management is extremely important and despite interest rates being at their lowest levels in a number of years borrowing is still a cause for concern as profit margins have been reduced and in some causes wiped out as contractors take on jobs at cost. Methods to improve the cash flow are described below at the different stages of a contract but in general firms need effective financial planning and control to monitor its position. Before a contract begins issues such as plant ownership, labour, subcontractors, materials, etc need to be discussed and the right mix found for each project.

Better buying and terms for sub-contracts involve negotiating improved deals either from suppliers or sub-contractors and therefore improve the cost of the project (Coates, 2009). This is widespread in the current climate due to the reduced amount of work available. The last three methods will bring in early money but must be done before submitting the priced bills (Cooke and Williams, 2009).

On site, the use of skilled labour increases efficiency and allows tasks to be completed earlier without the need for expensive and time consuming repair work. For complex tasks which the workforce could perform but not efficiently, specialist sub-contractors should be used. Plant costs can be extremely high which means that any plant that is not being used should be off-hired immediately and if any plant is owned by the company then there should be added emphasis on its use.

Strategic tendering and project mix become even more crucial to a company’s success during times of a recession. As the private sector feels the impact of a recession firstly and for a slightly longer period it is in a company’s long term interest to carry out a more aggressive bidding policy towards the public sector (Ren & Lin, 1996). Another advantage of the public sector is its transparency and openness during the tender stage. While the public sector may be susceptible to mal-practice, construction companies know that they will be impartially assessed and receive feedback. Strategic planning can be very beneficial as it seeks to align a company in a certain direction. In todays climate contractors need to evalute the client when deciding to tender as many contractors have commenced work on a project only to instructed to withdraw as the funding has been restricted (Edum-Fotwe & McCaffer, 1999). A number of contractors have also begun to take on jobs at cost or even a loss in an effort to win work with the chance of repeat work. Also this keeps the company name in circulation and also to hold onto valued staff that might otherwise have to be made redundant.

Partnering has been widely adopted in construction in the last number of years as it offers the opportunity for improving the project outcome aswell as benefiting the whole supply chain (Dozzi et al., 1996; Larson and Drexler, 1997). It utilizes each participant’s expertise and resources so that the required business objectives can be met or exceeded (Bennett & Jayes, 1998).

The use of sub contractors has increased as there is less overheads involved (Langford & Male, 1992). The benefits of partnering can be applied to co-contracting (main contractor-sub contractor) and supply chain integration (contractor-supplier), (Edum-Fotwe & McCaffer, 1999). This allows greater flexibility as both partners are working for a common goal and greater economies of scale can be achieved when tendering as contractors will have their own list of preferred suppliers or sub contractors which allows them to price new projects quickly and efficiently. As suppliers account for such a high percentage of building costs their involvement at an early stage should be welcomed as they can contribute new ideas, products or processes (Cartlidge, 2002).

Tyreman on the other hand draws attention to the fact that the construction industry is inherently mis-trusting and while benefits do exist he doubts whether it will be fully supported within the construction industry. This opinion is similar to that of Wood and Ellis (2005) who estimate that it will still be some time before a fully genuine relationship exists as there is an engrained culture of mistrust and deception. Successful partnerships offer the opportunity for repeat work but the client must be assured that tenders remain competitive within the relationship of trust.

As Project Programme Management provides training and technology advancement, it has allowed them to move into new markets which owing to the current high unemployment rate are particularly busy. They have also looked towards cheaper marketing tools such as over the internet to keep their overheads down while still keeping potential client exposure high.

At Laing O’Rourke, Tyreman discusses how credit checks are performed on all potential clients to rate them but they also use strategic tendering which has led them to tender more aggressively for public sector contrasts which is in line with the theories put forward by Ren and Lin (1996) and discussed in the literature review. Supply chain integration has also helped to achieve greater economies of scale.

The importance of cash flow cannot be overstated for construction firms and regardless of its time consuming requirements is particularly worthwhile. Despite many construction firms making a significant profit they can run out of cash and have to cease trading. If firms fail to correctly forecast when cash flow is required they can become insolvent as the cash is not available to pay their debts as they fall due. Effective communication will strengthen your existing relationships and help you to form positive bonds in future interactions with clients, banks, sub-contractors, suppliers, etc.

The importance and basic need for cash flow analysis has been stressed in the literature review and by both interviewees. Cash flow analysis is an essential day to day activity in construction and it is recommended that effective planning is carried out by experienced management. They need to establish good terms with suppliers and sub contractors and to put in place an efficient cash flow reporting system. Cash flow analysis can refer to both day-to-day analysis (short term) or economic forecasting (long-term). As discussed by Myers (2008) business fluctuations have been occurring since the start of business and while they are complicated and rely on a number of variables they can help to provide a company with the potential to forecast market conditions and thus position itself accordingly.

Top 6 Issues Facing the Construction Industry in 2019

Several industry surveys and reports forecast continued growth in the construction industry. Albeit, the growth shows a modest 4.8% increase, different from the double-digit growth in previous years. Regardless, there is still a general sense of optimism. With continued growth and positive outlook in the construction industry, what can possible be keeping construction executives up at night? Below, I touch on the top issues facing the construction industry in 2018.

1. Unpaid work

Of course, finances are one of the major issues that keep construction executives up at night. With a responsibility to ensure the livelihood of their employees and their families, it is important to have positive cash flow for the company. Unfortunately, subcontractors are not receiving payment for their completed work in numerous instances. Subcontractors have filed claims against their general contractors and owners in several major projects. Contractors claim $11 million in unpaid work at Kings’ downtown hotel project. Another $11 million has been unpaid in the Astros Nationals ballpark project, and $3 million is still unpaid at Disney. These are just the stories that made the news. Subcontractors are front-loading costs on many projects and paid their suppliers and employees. However, they are patiently awaiting payment from the General Contractor or owner who may be disputing the payments although the work is completed.

The General Contractor in the dispute with subs on Disney work stated, “Simply billing for work is no proof work was ever done.” Subcontractors need to develop thorough best practices to prevent putting themselves in similar scenarios. Photos and notes provide visual documentation of any jobsite issues that need to be addressed or rework that may be needed. Foreman must document any delays, disruptions and lost hours. Additional documentation including signed approvals on submittals, change orders, etc. serve as irrefutable proof to receive any payment on claims.

2. Retirement of aging boomers

Across the nation, thousands of baby boomers are retiring per day. This is a troublesome statistic considering that 54% of construction managers are boomers. With them leaves the requisite knowledge and experience that they have gained over their career. Construction executives must figure out how to transfer all of that knowledge to a new batch of hires in a time of labor shortage.

Many trades are also attending high school career fairs to proclaim construction as a desirable profession. Through active outreach, many construction companies are improving recruitment into the trades. Several construction companies are developing a mentorship program to bridge the knowledge gap between baby boomers and younger workers.

3. Varied technology among General Contractors

For every general contractor that incorporates new technology, they provide access to their subcontractors to use the same technology for collaboration. However, subcontractors work with multiple general contractors who may all different software. Subcontractors can become overwhelmed learning multiple solutions to meet requirements of their general contractors.

This arrangement benefits the General Contractor and not the subcontractors. When subcontractors use their general contractor’s project management solutions, this can put them at a disadvantage. The GC owns the system and its documentation. In the event of a claim or dispute, the General Contractor can and will likely revoke access to the subcontractor and edit any information as they deem fit. While it may create additional work for your team, subcontractors must maintain their own document management system to protect themselves in a dispute.

4. Unfavorable contract terms

Construction projects inherently assume a lot of financial risk. Disjointed interests shift a large amount of risk on subcontractor. In increasing numbers, subcontractors are receiving contracts with unfavorable terms such as liquidated damages, consequential impacts, warranty coverage, etc. During a recent eSUB construction webinar on risk mitigation, 86% of respondents indicated they had received a contract with liquidated damages. Any missed deadlines will directly hit your pocketbook.

However, many subcontractors experience delays that may be due to no fault of their own or unforeseen circumstances. Documentation tracking lost hours, schedule changes, any delays or disruptions is the key to protection against liquidated damages.

5. Safety

Construction work is inherently dangerous which makes insurance and workers compensation costly expenditure. 71% of respondents in a risk mitigation webinar stated they had experienced a safety incident or injury in the last 12 months. Stricter punishments are being enforced against companies that are accused of negligence. In addition to financial penalties, some construction company’s owners and/or their foreman are being convicted of manslaughter. Some receive community service or probation. However, in one instance, the judge sentenced the foreman to prison.

Unsafe practices jeopardize the safety of employees and carry severe penalties. Contractors can mitigate risk and ensure their teams follow required safety procedures. Completing safety meeting forms and inspection checklists become important to ensure that your company has gone through the requisite measures to follow safety standards. This will help mitigate any risk that any incident will take place and additionally provide documentation to remove your firm from any negligence.

6. Project delays

Unforeseen jobsite conditions. Changing scope. Design rework. All of this leads to project delays with only 25% of projects coming within 10% of original deadlines. Subcontractors attribute delays and change orders to design-induced rework and changes in scope. Companies submit project proposals based on the availability of resources. Therefore, delayed projects will cause a kink in the entire scheduling and resource management of a construction company.

With cost and schedule overruns becoming the norm in construction, the integrated project delivery (IPD) is gaining traction. IPD brings together the owner, architect, general contractor and major subcontractors at the beginning of the project to collaborate on designs, schedules, and costs. Because subcontractors perform the majority of labor on commercial projects, aligning their interests with the owner and designer creates a streamlined integrated labor deliveryTM method. Subcontractors serve as the subject matter experts, who are responsible for the articulation of the intricate and complex designs and need a seat at the design table to ensure a building is built as intended. A project based on an integrated labor delivery model connects all the stakeholders to improve communications, accountability, and productivity.

Housing Problems and Solutions in Nigeria

Frankly speaking, Nigeria’s housing problem is derived from a historical lack of focus on housing development. Over the years, the country has not been able to develop a viable and sustained housing finance system either because of lack of expertise, up to date and knowledgeable industry leaders especially in the policy making arms, lack of funding for relevant institutional agencies/department, political and selfish gains.

Housing plays a special role in the social, political but more importantly economic dialogue in most societies. Housing has been known to be a major component of creating stable and healthy communities and it is often the largest single category of household expense. For housing to be successful, a country needs to have a stable macroeconomic environment. Moderate to high inflation rates and nominal interest rates as witnessed in Nigeria are typical features of volatile economies. These features have strong effects of reducing the affordability of mortgages. A volatile economy also affects the supply of funds and the types of mortgages offered by lenders. In such an environment, lenders are concerned about liquidity risk and are reluctant to offer long term loans. The solution to this then becomes government’s strong institutional intervention in terms of favourable policy drafting and implementation. The coming on board of the Nigerian Mortgage Refinance Company (NMRC) is a commendable step towards scratching the surface of this challenge.

Another distinguishing characteristic of housing finance is the ability to mortgage the property to secure the loan. This means that the land laws and processes (title registration, foreclosure laws, etc.) have to be put in place to allow enforceability. An accurate and comprehensive land registration system is a necessary condition for effective property rights. This is largely absent in Nigeria. However, it is important to mention that a few states have begun to address this problem through the setting up of several land registries at the state level. It is pertinent that the states are encouraged to get these initiatives to a cruising altitude. At the Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria(FMBN), tireless efforts are being made to also contribute to solving this problem through the bank’s centralised repository land and assets registry system. At the Federal level, creating or sponsoring a Mortgage Electronic Registration System as is done in the United States and other emerging markets will also help to increase the ability to mortgage properties.

There are a whole lot of other risks and challenges associated with housing provision for the low and medium income earners. They include, Credit Risk; Liquidity risk; and Cash flow risk. Information on borrower credit history is an important component to mortgage underwriting and credit risk management. Mortgage lenders rely on credit information compiled by efficient credit bureaus to ascertain a borrower’s track record of handling credit. Liquidity risk is the risk that money may be needed before it is due. A lender that is faced with short term and unstable sources of funds may not be able to package mortgages due to the risk that it cannot meet its cash flow needs. Cash flow risk is related to uncertainty with respect to inflation, real interest rates and exchange rates. It encompasses what is usually called interest rate risk and prepayment risk. Cash flow risks are characteristic of macroeconomic environment and types of mortgage instruments available.

We have examples of countries like Mexico, Brazil, Egypt, Morocco, Singapore, Malaysia, India and Thailand that have become first class models of emerging economies that have developed sound housing finance systems that overcame all these challenges and mitigated these risks. These countries were worse off than Nigeria at some point as it concerns housing its citizenry. But high level of professionalism and strong political will witnessed in their housing sector has made them succeed.

In all countries of the world, formal sector financial intermediation can only exists with support of some government intervention. Government may intervene through enhancing a legal system of enforcing private businesses or may even operate or be a significant player in the primary housing finance system. Today, countries enjoying very high level of housing finance systems are the ones that have created sound enabling environment for the private sector (except Thailand whose Government Housing Bank is a world class model of direct government involvement in lending to the individual through the primary lending model).

What has happened in many emerging economies all over the world is that the government of the day has hired housing experts and policy analysts (strictly on professional basis, devoid of political gimmicks) to devise ways to overcome housing challenges in their countries, knowing how significant housing is to a nation’s GDP. Recent examples include India, Mexico, Jamaica, Malaysia, Brazil and Thailand. These countries have deployed strategies and models ranging from Home Loans Guarantee, Mortgage Insurance, Liquidity Facilities, Pass-Through Mortgage Backed Securities, Tax Credit for Low Income Housing, Seed Capital, Hedging of foreign long term debt for private market operators, etc. While not recommending a direct transfer of these models, a critical look at them in relation to our internal environment will help a great deal. More importantly let our policy analysts and leadership get to work rather than play lip service.

In Nigeria today, what we need in policy making are housing specialist who have the requisite knowledge and competence and not just political figures who do not understand by any means the role of housing in an economy. With a population of over 170 million people, a good, sound and smart team of policy makers with leadership (not based on geopolitical zones) will boost the housing and housing finance market. The forward and backward linkages of a viable housing industry are obvious. Let me not even go into that area. But what I must mention is that with such a population, and still growing, Nigeria faces significant challenges in both its present and future housing stock requirements.

Housing should be treated with a holistic approach that encompasses all elements and processes required in housing production. This will mean that housing should be placed in cadres of the Ministry of Finance, Central Bank of Nigeria, etc where these institutions are run by experts in their field.

Frankly speaking, Nigeria’s housing problem is derived from a historical lack of focus on housing development. Over the years, the country has not been able to develop a viable and sustained housing finance system either because of lack of expertise, up to date and knowledgeable industry leaders especially in the policy making arms, lack of funding for relevant institutional agencies/department, political and selfish gains. Twice in the housing development history of Nigeria has the Ministry of Housing been created and scrapped. Government has oscillated between direct construction of houses and direct lending to the individuals. In all the scenarios, what is evident is that we have not hired professional policy makers and implementers who have deep interests in housing and in providing houses to over 14 million households in demand of housing. We have always taken our Housing Ministry as one of the other numerous government functions that should be politicised or zoned or used to satisfy political thirst and loyalty. Thus what we have always come up with is a situation where the government at the centre has not prioritized the housing ministry. Again, the importance of housing to our overall economy cannot be overemphasised.

These events all together have created neglect for the housing needs of the citizenry, which when combined with a series of economic, financial, weak macroeconomic environment and poor title registration system, make it extremely difficult for the housing sector to blossom in the country. It is very important to mention here that the present administration is doing everything humanly possible to fit square pegs in square holes. In view of this, I will suggest further that housing and housing finance should be made a top national priority with a clear and professional leadership with unified direction of all government agencies related to the provision of housing for Nigerians.

Housing should be treated with a holistic approach that encompasses all elements and processes required in housing production. This will mean that housing should be placed in cadres of the Ministry of Finance, Central Bank of Nigeria, etc where these institutions are run by experts in their field. The Minister of Lands, Housing & Urban Development must be an individual with passion and interest in the housing sector. He/She must be a professional who is interested in making significant positive strides in the sector. Furthermore he/she must be an individual who has undergone requisite capacity building and acquired relevant knowledge concerning this industry not just locally, but also globally. That is the kind of person we need in the housing industry, and it should not matter from which geopolitical zones the leadership emanates from. The first criteria should be the deliverables as it concerns the sector.

For specificity, the most qualified housing minister irrespective of which geopolitical zones he/she is from should be a professional from a related discipline with a high ethical personality to (a) pursue the strengthening of institutional framework and effective coordination of the sector; (b) vigorously undertake land reforms (with strong will), urban development, property rights and infrastructural investment that affects housing finance; (c) should possess requisite knowledge to increase the efficiency and quality of housing subsidy programs that are effectively harmonised with other factors of housing production; (d) roll out policies to expand and diversify market-rate housing credit; (e) push for adequate laws, titling systems and strong judicial process that allows household to establish ownership of property. This will enhance enforceability and will make mortgage business attractive to the lender; (f) promulgate policies that will make for competitive and efficient primary mortgage markets, backed up with developed risk-sharing mechanisms like Mortgage Insurance, Liquidity Facilities, etc. This will definitely expand the supply of credit to low and moderate income households; (g) immediately provide an infrastructure for assessing collateral risk and credit risk; (h) focus on the development of mortgage capital markets. Sustained ability to access long term funding through issuance of mortgage securities that enhances supply of funds.

The above is not a job for a professional politician who has no idea in this field or any passion to provide houses to millions of Nigerians who pay over 40 percent to 50 percent of their earnings for rent (or the lower end Nigerian who do not even have sustainable income), but a job for a professional housing/housing finance expert who has zeal to excel in this uncontestable blue ocean market space that will boost our country’s GDP.

Whether that individual is from the North, South, East or West or from the innermost remote part of Nigeria that is not zoned for any government appointments does not matter. What matters is to have an expert to man the Ministry of Lands, Housing & Urban Development, and the provision of housing to our citizenry. It is no longer news that access to housing strongly supports economic growth and poverty reduction. This is basically because; amongst other things housing construction constitutes an engine for both employment and industrial growth.

If we limit our focus to deliverables instead of geopolitical zones, I am certain that we will find some revolutionists who can lead the sector in promulgating policies that will bring a turnaround in our housing/housing finance sector. This will ultimately fix our housing problems.

FLOOR FINISHES AND HOW TO CHOOSE THEM

FLOOR FINISHES 
AND HOW TO CHOOSE THEM

When choosing a floor finish, keep in mind the following:

• How slippery or smooth it is; do not use very smooth finishes in bathrooms and balconies
• How abrasion resistant it is - do not use soft, quick wearing finishes in areas with heavy foot traffic. Marble and wood have low abrasion resistance, for example, and granite and cement tiles have high abrasion resistance.
• Whether it is chemically neutral - some finishes react with acids, and should not be used in kitchens
• The climate: wood and carpets are perceived to be warm, so use them in cold climates, and stone and tile are perceived to be cool, so use them in warm climates - unless you have underfloor heating or cooling, which changes things.

A detailed description of each of the most important floor finishes follows.

STONE

Stone is a great floor finish and is affordable in many countries; Italy and India are both known for the variety and quality of stone they produce. There is a great advantage to stone that is almost unique to floor finishes: you can polish it, and thus make it look and feel like new, at any time in its life.

Granite is a volcanic rock (it was originally lava, that cooled to form solid rock) that has the following properties:

• It is very hard, strong, and abrasion resistant
• It is resistant to acids
• It can be polished to a mirror-like smoothness

These properties make it a great choice as a  floor or countertop finish. It can also be used to clad walls. However it is available mainly in dark colours - black, red, grey - with the possible exception of Kashmir White Granite. This darkness in colour does tend to limit its use in certain areas.

Its surface can also be worked to produce a variety of textures other than smooth: granite can be flamed, water blasted, sand blasted, bush hammered, or tumbled. These rough finishes are mostly used outdoors, on pathways. The famous cobblestones of Europe are granite, for instance.

Marble is a metamorphic rock (meaning that it was made by the intense pressures and heat deep within the earth), and has the following properties:

• Most marbles are soft, and not very abrasion resistant
• They are not resistant to acids
• They can be polished to a mirror finish
• It is translucent - light can pass through it to the extent of a few millimeters

Thus, marbles should not be used in high-traffic areas such as the entryways or staircases of public buildings - granite would be much better in those cases. Since it is not acid resistant, you should not use Marble under urinals (urine is acidic), and in kitchens, where lemon juice and other acids are present. But marble is prized for the beauty and richness of its finish; it also feelsvery special underfoot. It is available in a wide variety of colours, mainly light colours.

Sandstone is a sedimentary rock (rock formed by ancient rivers that slowly deposited material on their beds, that built up layer by layer over millions of years). It has the following properties:

• It is abrasion resistant, but not always strong, as it is formed in layers.
• It is usually highly resistant to acids
• It has a rough finish, and cannot be mirror-polished, as it consists of grains

These properties mean that it is good for decks and external areas because of its anti-slip properties. Since sandstone looks and feels very different from granite and marble, it has become fashionable to use these in boutique stores. Steve Jobs famously saw a bluish-grey sandstone on a trip to Florence, and many years later insisted that that very stone be used in all apple stores because of its 'integrity'. The stone is quarried from an area reserved for apple, cut into tiles, and every piece graded individually for colour tone by master craftsmen. The tiles are then arranged so that pieces with similar colour are placed together, which makes them seem more uniform to the eye. It is obtained from this quarry, if you're interested.

Tiv

Profile

Nigeria’s Tiv, making up 2.5 per cent of the national population, live in the central-eastern state of Taraba in the valley of the Benue River, and neighbouring states. Tiv are prosperous subsistence farmers and traders growing yams, millet and sorghum and raising small livestock and cattle. Their villages comprise compounds of sleeping huts, reception huts and granaries with a central marketplace. They speak Nyanza or Benue-Congo, part of the Niger-Congot language family. Traditionally Tiv formed a classic segmentary society in which strongly organized patrilineages linked large portions of the ethnic group into named non-local segments. Local organization, land tenure, inheritance, religious beliefs, law and allegiances were all related to this segmentary lineage. Tiv political organization and the possibility of conflict or alliance among territorial groups are traditionally based on the relative closeness of patrilineal descent members to a male ancestor. Nonetheless all Tiv have united against neighbouring enemies because of their common ancestors. Many Tiv continue to practice their traditional religion, while others have converted to Christianity and Islam.

Historical context

Tiv were never conquered by the Muslim jihad. Traditional lineage elders settled political disputes. Tiv had no paramount chiefs although the British established one in 1948. Under indirect rule, the British granted authority to members of the Jokun minority in order to control the Tiv majority, and tensions have continued ever since.

Wider administrative units were introduced under British rule, and mission-led education and conversion to Christianity helped create a sense of separateness from the Muslim north, based on educational disparity and religion. Tiv rioted in 1952 against the Hausa – Fulani rulers of northern Nigeria, who took harsh punitive action against them. Violence between Tiv and Jokun broke out on the eve of independence in 1959, as Tiv again expressed anger with the Native Authority System. Tiv were among members of the United Middle Belt Congress that opposed the rule of the Native Authority, which supported the Northern People’s Congress (NPC), the ruling party of the north. Many people were killed during uprisings in 1960 and 1964. The Tiv attempt to create a separate region was blocked by northern Muslim-based political parties. Tiv agitation led eventually to the creation of the Benue-Plateau State in 1967, and in 1976, the splitting off of Benue State gave the Tiv a homeland, where they form a convincing majority.
Nevertheless, tensions continued. In 1991-1992 there was renewed fighting over control of Wukari, which after the drawing of new state borders lies in the majority-Jokub state of Taraba, and over the boundaries between Benue and Taraba states. The Jokub minority in Benue and the Tiv minority in Taraba both complain of marginalization. The conflict has been heightened by the concept of ‘indigeneity’ enshrined in Nigeria’s Constitution, and the majorities claim that the minorities are ‘settlers’ deserving of fewer rights and privileges. Violence peaked in 2001, when hundreds died. Many of those were killed by the army in reprisal attacks against the Tiv community after Tiv militants killed 19 soldiers who had been deployed in the area to quell the fighting.

In November 2007, in a highly unusual move, the Nigerian army issued a formal apology to the Tiv community for killings carried out by the military in 2001. Condemned by some, as inadequate because it was not tied to compensation for the victims’ families, it was nevertheless welcomed by others as a sign that the Nigerian army was at last taking human rights issues   seriously. 2007 saw a resurgence of fighting between the Tiv and Kuteb communities in Benue and Taraba states in Central Nigeria. Hundreds were reported displaced, and dozens killed.

Between January and June 2011, 100 people were killed in clashes between Tiv farmers and Fulani herdsmen in Benue State, and over 20,000 persons displaced and scores of communities destroyed. Towards the end of the year, another 5,000 people were displaced in Benue and Nasarawa States as Fulani herdsmen clashed with farmers. Up to 10 people were killed in the attacks.

Current issues

Retaliatory inter-communal violence fuelled by competition for land has continued. In one incident in Benue State, for instance, Tiv farmers were charged in 2014 with the murder of two Fulani herders. Ongoing clashes between Fulani pastoralists and farmers, some of them Tiv, continued to contribute to internal displacement of nearly 50,000 people in the north central states by mid-2015. In some cases, however, acts of violence at first attributed to inter-communal violence between Tiv and Fulani were upon investigation found to be the work of Boko Haram, which in 2014 and 2015 expanded operations southward into the Middle Belt.

TIV PEOPLE IN NIGERIA

Tiv (or Tivi) is an ethno-linguistic group or ethnic nation in West Africa. The group constitutes approximately 3.5% of Nigeria's total population, and number about 6.5 million individuals throughout Nigeria and Cameroon. The Tiv language is spoken by about 7 million people in Nigeria with a few speakers in Cameroon. Most of the language's Nigerian speakers are found in Benue, Taraba and Nasarawa States. The language is a branch of Benue–Congo and ultimately of the Niger–Congo phylum. In precolonial times, the Fulani ethnic group referred to the Tiv as "Munchi" (also sometimes written Munshi e.g. Duggan 1932), a term not accepted by Tiv people. They depend on agricultural produce for commerce and life.

History

The Tiv say they emerged into their present location from the southeast. It is claimed that the Tiv wandered through southern, south-central and west-central Africa before arriving at the savannah lands of West African Sudan via the River Congo and Cameroon Mountains. "Coming down," as they put it, they met the Fulani, with whom they still recognize a joking relationship. The earliest recorded European contact was in 1852, when Tiv were found on the banks of the river Benue. In 1879 their occupation of the riverbanks was about the same as in 1950. British occupying forces entered Tivland from the east in 1906, when they were called in to protect a Hausa and Jukun enclave that the Tiv had attacked. The Tiv said in 1950 that they had defeated this British force, then later invited the British in. The southern area was penetrated from the south; what southern Tiv call "the eruption" of the British there occurred in 1911.

The Tiv came into contact with European culture during the colonial period. During November 1907 to spring 1908, an expedition of the Southern Nigeria Regiment led by Lieutenant-Colonel Hugh Trenchard came into contact with the Tiv. Trenchard brought gifts for the tribal chiefs. Subsequently, roads were built and trade links established between Europeans and the Tiv.^[3] But before construction of roads began, a missionary named Mary Slessor went throughout the region seeing to the people's needs.

National Attire ('Anger')

The Tiv national attire is the black-and-white-striped 'Anger'. When the Tiv people arrived at their current location several centuries earlier, they discovered that the zebra they used to hunt for meat and skin, used for ceremonial attire, was not native to the area. When they acquired the skill of the loom, they decided to honour their heritage by weaving a cloth with black-and-white stripes, reminiscent of the zebra skin; this would then be made attires as preferred. Initially, it was a simple cloth to be draped around the torso. Nowadays, it is made into elaborate robes, such as those worn by the traditional rulers and elders - from the Tor Tiv downwards.

The black-and-white colour of the necklaces worn by the traditional rulers has been chosen to match the robes.

Social and political organisation

Most Tiv have a highly developed sense of genealogy, with descent being reckoned patrilineally. Ancestry is traced to an ancient individual named Tiv, who had two sons; all Tiv consider themselves a member either of Ichongo (descendants of son Chongo) or of Ipusu (descendants of son Pusu). Ichongo and Ipusu are each divided into several major branches, which in turn are divided into smaller branches. The smallest branch, or minimal lineage, is the ipaven. Members of an ipaven tend to live together, the local kin-based community being called the "tar". This form of social organisation, called a segmentary lineage, is seen in various parts of the world, but it is particularly well known from African societies (Middleton and Tait 1958). The Tiv are the best known example in West Africa of a society of segmentary lineage, as documented by Laura Bohannan (1952) and by Paul and Laura Bohannan (1953); in East Africa, the best known example is the Nuer, documented by E.E. Evans-Pritchard (1940).

The Tiv had no administrative divisions and no chiefs nor councils. Leadership was based on age, influence and affluence. The leaders' functions were to furnish safe conduct, arbitrate disputes within their lineages, sit on moots and lead their people in all external and internal affairs.

These socio-political arrangements caused great frustration to British colonial attempts to subjugate the population and establish administration on the lower Benue. The strategy of indirect rule, which the British felt to be highly successful in controlling Hausa and Fulani populations in Northern Nigeria, was ineffective in a segmentary society like the Tiv (Dorward 1969). Colonial officers tried various approaches to administration, such as putting the Tiv under the control of the nearby Jukun, and trying to exert control through the councils of elders ("Jir Tamen"); these met with little success. The British administration in 1934 divided the Tiv into Clans, Kindreds, and Family Groups. The British appointed native heads of these divisions as well. These administrative divisions are gradually assuming a reality which they never had originally.

Members of the Tiv group are found in many areas across the globe, such as the United States and United Kingdom. In these countries, they hold unions, known as MUT (Mzough U Tiv, or Mutual Union of Tiv in English), where members can assemble and discuss issues concerning their people across the world, but especially back in Nigeria. The arm of the MUT serving the United States of America is known as MUTA (Mzough U Tiv ken Amerika, or Mutual Union of the Tiv in America), for instance.

Before the introduction of printed material, radio, film and television, mass communication in Nigeria was done through the indigenous people with the use of traditional political systems of communication. The rulers and the chiefs governed their ethnic communities and communicated with them through various channels.

Tiv music and communication

Locally made musical instruments were traditionally used for political and ceremonial communication. The key instruments follow.

Kakaki

The Kakaki is a royal trumpet used in many West African groups in Nigeria, Niger, Chad and Burkina Faso.^[7] This is an instrument used to convey special messages to the people of the community, such as the birth of the child of the King, his naming ceremony, the crowning of a new king, or to gather people together during the marriage ceremony of the king and the king’s son’s marriage ceremony.^[8] This instrument was used to convey all the messages to the people to assemble at the square for the ceremony. When there is an enemy attack on the community, a warning sound of the Kakaki is blown to alert those who can defend the society and every citizen to be alert.

Ilyu

A light wooden instrument, it was used to pass messages to the people of the village, probably for the invitation of the people for a particular meeting of the elders at the king’s palace or for the people to gather at the market square for a message from or by the king. Up till today, it is the main instrument for the celebration of newlyweds (marriage reception ceremony or Kwase-kuhan).

Indyer

A heavy wooden instrument carved out of mahogany trunk through some mysterious way; myth has it that a chosen carver turns into a worm to create the large hollow in the cut trunk, leaving only a small opening (like in a medical operation). This belief is perhaps due to the fact that the carvers are reluctant to explain the technique employed for such artistic finesse. The Indyer, believed to be connected with high magico-spiritual potency, is not played for secular purposes except for special occasions as sanctioned by the elders. It is used to communicate the death of an important personality in the community or to communicate a serious happening in the community, like a call to war.

Akya

It is used together with Agbande (drums) combined with Ageda at festivals to pass a message across to the people for a call for the display of culture.

Adiguve

It is an instrument like a violin, used for music and dances in conjunction with Agbande (Agbande) at festivals and dance occasions, sometimes to announce the death of a leader or an elder of the community. During this period it is played sorrowfully for the mourning of the dead. It is mostly played at funerals.

Gbande

Agbande (plural) are a set of crafted wooden musical instruments used to compliment agbande at festivals. They are particularly large and are played by the young men of the community. Special drum beats communicate special messages and music for the festivals to come and during the festivals, for instance, royal occasions such as the coronation and funeral.

Ortindin (Ortyom) – Messenger

Usually, he is chosen by the elders of the community to do errands for the elders and the leader of the community. He is sent out to the heads of the neighbouring families for a crucial meeting at the head of all the leaders of the community.

Kolugh ku Bua – Cow Horn

This is an instrument made out of cow horns. There are farmers' associations that use this instrument when they have a job to do; for instance, when they are invited to make ridges on a piece of land, the Public Relations Officer (PRO) of the association will use this medium to wake up the members for the work they have for that day.

Indigenous communication is not only vertical, from the rulers to the subjects, but is also horizontal. Individuals communicate with society through physical and metaphysical means. A farm owner, for example, may mount a charm conspicuously on his farm in order to stress private ownership and to scare off human intruders.

The fear of herbalists and witches influences social behaviour considerably.

Rainmakers communicate their power to disrupt events through various psychological means. Village sectors in Africa communicate mostly via the marketplace of ideas contributed by traditional religion, observances, divination, mythology, age-grades, the Chiefs courts, the elder's square, secret and title societies, the village market square, the village drum (gbande) men, indeed the total experiences of the villager in his environment.

Unlike the mass media, access to the native media is culturally determined and not economic. Only the selected group of young men or the elders can disseminate information generally. The young only disseminate general information about events and the social welfare of their communities using the media mentioned above.

The Tiv people of Benue state still practise some of this traditional system of communication, using the Kakais, Agbande, Indyer, Adiguve, Ilyu, etc. Nevertheless the increase in the western world media is threatening the cultural communication system.

Many of the communities in Benue state still use these instruments to convey messages to the people of their community, and it is helping a great deal, since there is a language barrier between people with the introduction of the western world's means of communication, using a western language (English) to convey information.

Notable people

Politicians and activists

J. S. Tarkaa

Barnabas Gemade, former PDP presidential candidate

• Joseph Tarka, politician, human rights activist
• Barnabas Gemade, former PDP party chairman
• Aper Aku, politician
• George Akume, former senate minority leader
• Iyorchia Ayu, former senate president
• Chaha Biam, former speaker house of representative
• Gabriel Suswam, politician
• Samuel Ortom, Current State Governor
• James Ayatse, Tor-Tiv
• Daniel Saror, former minority leader
• Michael Aondoakaa, former attorney general of Nigeria
• Moses Adasu, politician
• A.I. Katsina-Alu, former chief justice of Nigeria
• I.H. Hagher, former Ambassador to Mexico and Canada, former Minister of Health, and Mines and Steel
• P.D. Awunah, Politician

Military and law enforcement

• Gideon Orkar
• Victor Malu, former Chief of Army Staff
• Joseph Akahan, former Chief of Army Staff
• Joseph Akaagerger
• John Mark Inienger, former ECOMOG commander
• Farida Mzamber Waziri, former EFCC Chairperson
• John Kpera

Sports icons

• Terna Suswam, football player
• Dominic Iorfa, football player
• Timothy Anjembe, football player
• David Tyavkase, football player
• Dominic Iorfa (footballer, born 1995)
• Jeff Varem, NBA D-league player
• Terna Nande, American football player
• Apollo Crews, WWE wrestler
• Francisca Ordega, Nigerian national team soccer player
• Fanendo Adi
• Barnabas Imenger Jr., Nigerian super eagles striker

Cultural icons

• Akiga Sai, autobiographer and historian